biogeochemical cycles

Biogeochemical cycle is include the cycles of elements that is important in the environment which is carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle,sulfur cycle, iron cycle and manganese cycle. This is the carbon cycle.

The reduced form is methane and organic matter while the oxidizes form is c02 and c0. The atmospheric c02 is fixed by plants. In carbon cycle the final product for aerobic is accumulation of oxidized product such as h2o while anaerobic of reduced product such as nh4.

In nitrogen cycle there are 3 major process which is nitrification, denitrification and nitrogen fixatiojn. Nitrogen cycle give product of ammonia and must occur in anaerobic condition even in aerobic microorganism.

In sulfur cycle use sulfide as energy sources in sulfur oxidation. While sulfur reduction is reduction of sulfate for the use in amino acid and protein biosynthesis.in mineralization sulfhydryl groups in proteins of dead animals converted to sulfide.

In iron cycle there is oxidation and reduction process..

In manganese cycle , the forms of soil manganese in equilibrium with solution manganese were studied by extracting the soil with ZnSO₄ solution followed by hydroquinone. 

principles of ecology

Firstly what I have learned from this topic is the definition of ecology. Ecology is the study of organisms and their interaction with the environment. Habitat is place of organism live while ecological niches is place where an organism perform best/ there are five level of hierarchy.

We need to know the abiotic factors which is :

-temperature

-water

-sunlight

-wind

-rock and soil

-periodic disturbance

Homeostasis is the dynamic balance of process material and organism in the ecosystem and biosphere.

Here we have the food web that include the procedure such as green plant and algae, consumer such as omnivore animal, decomposer such as bacteria and fungi. 

The roles of microbes in ecosystem is oxygen produced by the trees in the rainforest and blue green algae in the ocean . and it will remove weaker species through infections.. lastly we have learn approaches to effective ecosystem management which is skateholders,adaptive management, natural resources management, strategic management, landscape level onservation and command and control management.

microbial groups

Today we learn on topic microbial groups. Biochemical control agent is use other living organism to control or to kill other organism. There are five methods of microbial reproduction which is binary fission, budding, fragmentation, formation of spore and sexual reproduction. We know that The requirements for development of microbial community is physical growth requirement and chemical growth requirement.

Physical growth requirement involve:

1)light

Required/kill by light

2)temperature

a.       Mesophile(25-40 degree cesius)

b.      Psychrophiles(grow at 0 degree bt optimal at 15 degree Celsius)

c.       Psychrotrophs (optimal at 20-30 degree celsius)

d.      Thermophiles (opt at 15 degree Celsius)

3)Ph

Acidophiles-extreme low pH

Alkaliphiles-prefer alkaline condition

4)water acidity and osmotic pressure

Water necessary for growth. Bacteria required high water activity habitat in contrast fungi need lower water activity habitat.

Chemical growth requirement involve:

a)      Water

Important in dissolve nutrients and cellular functions

b)      Carbon

Importance in buiding block and as main sources of energy

c)       Oxygen

Aerobes:need 02

d)      Nitrogen,phosphorus and sulfur

For biosynthesis of protein

e)      Special growth factor

Specifically needed for growth of certain m/os

f)       Trace element

Importance for enzyme function and as cofactor

There are 2 major nutritional which is source of energy and sources of carbon. In development of microbial communities there are 3 process which is selection strategies, succession and biofilms.in selection strategies we have r strategies and k strategies. R strategies have high rate of reproduction so that it will die very fast and have short general time. In contrast k strategies produce slowly that make it more stable and bigger in size. Besides that, there are 3 types of succession which is preemptive colonization,autogenic succession and allogenic succession. Climate community achieve when succession ends but this is rarely achieve. In biofilm, bacteria of same species that stick to surface will colonize and pull another microorganism.

viruses

Virus contain contain single type of nucleic acid ,either DNA or RNA. Characteristic of virus can be divide into host range, nucleic acid,capsid and envelope, tail and type of diseases.

1)host range

Host range is determined by attachment site on the host and availability in the potential host the factors for viral replication .  location of attachment site is in the cell wall,fimbrie, and plasma membrane of animal cells. The host range of the virus will depend upon the presence of the receptors. If a host lacks the receptor for a virus, or if the host cell lacks some component necessary for the replication of a virus, the host will inherently be resistant to that virus.

2)nucleic acid

It have either DNA or RNA, circular or linear and can appear ingly or in several segments.

3)capsid and envelope

the capsid is surrounded by lipid bilayer that contains viral proteins that enable the virus to bind to the host cells. virus envelope is derived from the host cell membranes. The capsid and envelope play many roles in viral infection, including virus attachment to cells, entry into cells, release of the capsid contents into the cells, and packaging of newly formed viral particles. The capsid and envelope are also responsible for transfer of the viral genetic material from one cell to another. 

General morphology of virus is helical viruses,polyhedral viruses, enveloped viruses and complex viruses.

4) tail and type of disease

Virus is with tail or without tail that is use for attachment.

algae and protozoa

Algae can be referred to as plant-like organisms that are usually photosynthetic, but do not have true roots, stems, leaves, vascular tissue and have simple reproductive structures. They are distributed at planktonic, benthic and neustonic and in moist situations on land. The algae have chlorophyll and can manufacture their own food through the process of photosynthesis. Algae nutrition is autotrophic or heterotrophic. Algae reproduction is by asexual which is fragmentation, spores and binary fission and also sexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction we have isogamy and heterogamy.  Isogamy no structural distinction between male and female gamete. In contrast, heterogamy2 different type of gamate are produce which is male gamete and female gamete.

Characteristic of algae from different division:

1)chlorophyta

Most chlorophytes are aquatic, but some green algae can live on the surface of snow, on tree trunks, in soils, or symbiotically with protozoans, hydras or lichen-forming fungi. Green algae have chlorophylls a and b and store starch as a food reserve inside their plastids. Their cell wall made up of cellulose. They have sexual and asexual reproduction. Example: chlamidomonas

2)charophyta

They found in fresh to brackish water.Their green color comes from chlorphylls a and b.

3)euglenophyta

They have chlorophyll a and b .storage product is paramylon. Reproduction occurs by longitudinal cell division. Most live in freshwater. The most characteristic genus is Euglena, common in ponds and pools, especially when the water has been polluted by runoff from fields or lawns on which fertilizers have been used.

4)chrysophyta

large group of eukariotyes algae commonly called golden algae, found mostly in freshwater.
Chrysophytes contain chlorophylls a and c, which are masked by the accessory pigment fucoxanthin, a carotenoid. Example:diatoms

5)phaeophyta

Like the chrysophytes brown algae derive their color from the presence, in the cell chloroplasts, of several brownish carotenoid pigments, as fucoxathin. With only a few exceptions, brown algae are marine, growing in the colder oceans of the world.

6)rhodophyta

phylum of the kingdom protista consisting of the photosynthetic organisms commonly known as red algae. The red pigment=phycoerythrin , blue pigment=phycocyanin.

7)pyrrhophyta

They are unicellular found in marine and freshwater. They have chlorophyll a and c, carotenoids and xantophylls. Mostly they have 2 flagella which is longitudinal flagellum and transverse flagellum.

the toxic algal produce neurotoxin and it is also use for biofuel production.

PROTOZOA

Protozoa are a diverse group of mostly motile unicellular eukaryotic organisms. protozoa were defined as unicellular protists with animal-like behaviour, such as movement.. the unique features of protozoa is actoplasm,endoplasm,pellicle,nucleus and vavuoles. Protozoa are chemohterotroph which is holozoid nutrition and saprozoic nutrtion. For locomotion they have pseudopodia , flagella and cilia. For production there are asexual and sexual. In asexual there is binary fission while for sexual is conjugation. Binary fission result in two identical cells while conjugation is conjugation of 2 ciliates. Protozoa are classified into sarcomastigophora, labyrinthomorphora,apicomplexa,microspore,ascetospora,myxozoa and ciliophora. Sarcomastigophora are flagellates and amoebae and also have single type of nucleus.

 Apicomplexa are sporozoan with lack of locomotion organells. 

The last one is ciliophora are the largest phylum that use cilia as locomotory organelle.

fungi

Fungi can be single celled or very complex multicellular organisms. General characteristic of fungus is eukaryotic, spore-bearing organism, no chlorophyll, reproduce sexually and asexually and absorbtive nutrition.They are found in just about any habitat but most live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant material rather than in sea or fresh water. A group called the decomposers grow in the soil or on dead plant matter where they play an important role in the cycling of carbon and other elements. This is the structure of fungus

Reproduction of fungi is sexual and asexual.

Asexual reproduction 1. Bud formation in yeasts In its simplest form asexual reproduction is by budding or binary fission. Enzymatic activity and turgor pressure the act to weaken and extrude the cell wall. New cell wall material is incorporated during this phase.

2. Fragmentation

Any mycelium that is fragmented or disrupted, provided that the fragment contains the equivalent of the peripheral growth zone, can grow into a new colony.

3. Sporulation

It is responsible for the production of large numbers of spores throughout the year. These asexual spores are formed on a phase of the fungal life cycle termed in some texts as the mitosporic, or anamorphic phase.

Sexual reproduction

To achieve sexual reproduction it is necessary to have two mating type haploid nuclei (n + n), or a diploid (2n) nucleus.

Zygomycota Common representatives: black bread molds Hyphae are haploid Reproduction relies mainly on asexual spore production

Ascomycota (sac fungi) Common representatives: yeasts, morels, and truffles Hyphae are haploid and dikaryoid Asexual reproduction relies on asexual spore production

Basidiomycota (sac fungi) Common representatives: mushrooms and shelf fungi Hyphae are haploid and dikaryoid Asexual reproduction relies on asexual spore production

Deuteromycota (fungi imperfecti)

• Members include Trichophyton (Athlete's foot), Penicillium (Penicillin), and Candida albicans 

There are three types of slime molds:

• Oomycota
• Myxomycota
• Acrasiomycota

A very small number of fungi cause diseases in animals. In humans these include skin diseases such as athletes’ foot, ringworm and thrush. And benefit of fungi is as agents of biodegradation, industrial fermentation process and important for agriculture, horticulture and forestry.

Archaea

This week we learn on archaea . Archaeans can be found in the most extreme environments on the planet which in cold environment, hot environment, high salinity and anaerobic environment.  They  live near rift vents in the deep sea at temperatures well over 100 degrees Centigrade. Others live in hot spring, or in extremely alkaline or acid waters. They have been found inside the digestive tracts of cows, termites, and marine life where they produce methane. They live in the anoxic muds of marshes and at the bottom of the ocean.  

There are three main types of archaea: the crenarchaeota, which are characterized by their ability to tolerate extremes in temperature and acidity. The euryarchaeota, which include methane-producers and salt-lovers  and lastly is theaumarcheota. The unique features of archea is cell wall, membrane lipids , metabolism and genetics. Cell wall of bacteria contain s-layer that different from bacteria s-layer. Archaea membrane has their own features that differentiate it from bacteria that is more complex and less impermeable.

Among these three main types of archaea are some subtypes, which include:

Methanogens— archaeans that produce methane gas as a waste product of their "digestion," or process of making energy.

Halophiles— those archaeans that live in salty environments.

Thermophiles— the archaeans that live at extremely hot temperatures.

Psychrophiles— those that live at unusually cold temperatures.

that is what i can conclude from the notes of archaea . second class we have answer the group quiz on the procaryotic and archea